Country Analysis Essay

India is the third largest economy in the world as regards to its purchasing power. If effective measures are taken it can be the third largest economy after the US and China. Although India has much potential in terms of economic advancement there are vital issues that need to be addressed for instance overpopulation, environmental degradation, ethnic and religious strife as well as extensive poverty. This paper will provide general information about the country for instance it’s political, economic, social and culture organization, economic and trade indicators, specific reasons why its market is attractive, potential and pitfalls in international management, and contemporary issues that may support-impede international management. A brief history. India is located in the southern Asia and it borders the Arabian Sea as well as the Bay of Bengal. It is between Burma and Pakistan. Its early history dates back to the 19th century when Britain had the political control of all the Indian land. During the first and the second world wars the Indian soldiers played a significant role. The Indians resisted the British control over their land and this led to their independence in 1947. Significant leaders that led in the non violent resistance include Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru. (www. state. gov). The region was divided into two comprising of the secular Indian state and the Muslim state of Pakistan. The two countries went into war in 1971 and the Eastern Pakistan became a separate nation of Bangladesh. The state of Kashmir is however a cause of dispute between the two countries up to date. Political organization. India declared itself a republic in January 1950 and it set a constitution that would guide its undertakings. The constitution was keen in ensuring justice, liberty and equality. It was also made flexible enough to incorporate the social as well as economic changes should they arise. In ensuring democracy prevailed it first held its general elections in 1952 and since then election are held after every five years. India is a Union that comprises of 28 States and seven centrally administered Union Territories. (www. state. gov). Every one above eighteen years of age and is an Indian citizen has the right to vote according to the provisions of the constitution. Fundamental Rights of every Indian citizen include the freedom of speech, expression, belief, assembly and association, migration, and choice of occupation or trade. Discrimination on grounds of race, religion, creed or sex is consequently avoided through the above provisions. India has a form of parliamentary democracy, it has a bicameral parliament and the sovereignty rests ultimately with the people. The elected officials in the parliament are responsible in making important decisions regarding the country. India has a Council of States which consists of not more than 250 members. 12 members are nominated by the President of India while the rest are elected. The vice president oversees the Council of States which is also known as Rajya Sabha. An important aspect regarding the Council of States is that it is not subject to dissolution and a third of its members retire at the end of every second year. Nominated members have a special knowledge in areas for instance literature, science, arts as well as in social services. There is also the Lok Sabha or House of the People which consists of 545 members. 530 of these are directly elected from the 25 States and 13 are from the seven Union Territories. Two of the members are nominated by the President and they act as representatives of the Anglo-Indian community. The President of India is also the Head of the State and the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. (www. state. gov). He is elected by an electoral college composed of members of both the Houses of Parliament that is the Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha and the legislatures of the nation’s constituent States. The President holds office for five years term but he can be re-elected. However, the President does not on his own initiative exercise any constitutional powers. The Council of Ministers which is headed by the Prime Minister is the one responsible for that. Election of the vice president is between the members of both houses and the one with majority support in the Lok Sabha becomes the prime minister. The prime minister advises the president on the ministers to appoint and as long as the minister has support from the parliament he can continue to enjoy his term in the office. The judiciary is independent of the executive and it has the role of safe guarding the constitution of the land. The Supreme Court is the highest judicial tribunal but each state has its own high court. The current head of state who is also the president is Mrs Pratibha Devisingh Patil and the head of government or the prime minister is Manmohan Singh. (www. state. gov). Economic. The GDP or the purchasing power parity as at 2007 was at $2. 965 trillion while the GDP per capita was at $2,700. The composition of the GDP according to the sectors was as follows; agriculture contributed to 16. 6%, industry 28. 4% and the services sector was 55%. The labor force was 516. 4 million with agriculture registering the highest percentage at 60% the service sector was second at 28% and industry contributed 12%. The unemployment rate in 2007 was 7. 2% and the population below poverty line was 25%. The inflation rate or the consumer prices in 2007 was 5. 9%. The government budget was as follows; revenues were $145. 2 billion while expenditures were at $182. 4 billion. The public debt both the federal and state debt accounted to 58. 8% of GDP. Agricultural products that are produced in India include rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, potatoes; cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats, poultry and fish. Relevant industries include textiles, chemicals, food processing, steel, transportation equipment, cement, mining, petroleum, machinery and software. (CIA). In terms of trade India has been fluctuating for instance from 2005 to 2008 goods and services in terms of the percentage of GDP has shifted from 20. 2, 22. 7, 21. 2 to 20. 6. Likewise the inflation in this period was 4. 2, 6. 2, 6. 4 and 5. 2. Australian trade relationship in 2007 was as follows; exports to India accounted to a tune of 5. 5% of the total share recording a growth of 5. 4. Imports from India were 0. 8% of the total share which was a 14% total growth. In total the trade accounted for 3% of the total share with a growth of 6. 5%. Major exports to Australia include non monetary gold, coal, copper, ore and wool. India imports pearls and gems, electric plants, jewels and medicaments. The services exported to India from Australia include education related as well as personal travel and they attribute to 3. 8% of the total share while the imports are 0. 9% of the total share and the include computer services and personal travel. Other export destinations include the US which account for 15. 4%, United Arab Emirates 9. 5% and China 6. 4%. (CIA). India can increase its GDP by increasing the production of the goods and services that it has a competitive advantage in. The population as at July 2008 according to CIA was at 1,147,995,898. The age structure was as follows 0-14 years attributed to 31. 5% of the total population with 189,238,487 males and 172,168,306 females. 15-64 years were 63. 3% of the total population of which there were 374,157,581 males and 352,868,003 were females. Those aged 65 years and over comprised of 5. 2% of the total population with 28,285,796 males and 31,277,725 females. The population growth rate is 1. 578% with a birth rate of 22. 22 births/1,000 and a death rate of 6. 4 deaths/1,000 population. The total infant mortality rate was 32. 31 deaths/1,000 live births with males comprising 36. 94 deaths/1,000 live births as females comprised of 27. 12 deaths/1,000. Life expectancy at birth for the total population is 69. 25 years and males register a life expectancy of 66. 87 years as that of females is 71. 9 years. The total fertility rate is 2. 76 children born per woman. (CIA). Among the significant activities that have an impact in the country’s economy is agriculture which is both traditional as well as modern. The service sector and modern industries also have a significant impact on the country’s economy. A large proportion of the labor force is in the agriculture and this is risky as the sector is prone to many fluctuations in the market. To make India attractive to foreigners as an effort of boosting its economy the government has reduced unnecessary controls that would hinder foreign trade and investment. Allowing foreign investment on key areas like the telecommunications will be critical in promoting economic advancement in India. For the sensitive sectors like agriculture imposition of tariffs has the effect of reducing the number of people venturing in it. The country’s economy has registered a 7% growth within a decade and it has been able to reduce the poverty levels. In 2006 it was able to achieve an economic growth of 8. 5%. The high population can be of positive effects to the economy in the sense that it can be exploited as potential labor that is an important factor of production. By using the educated labor force it has risen to become a major exporter of software services as well as software workers. Through the economic expansion the country has been able to reduce its federal deficit at a remarkable rate. However the strong growth blended with easy accessibility to credit as well as a booming real estate precipitated inflation that was a cause of inflation. To control the inflation the central bank applied monetary policies like hiking the interest rates to slow down the credit growth. Social and culture organization India’s culture is unique although it is very diverse for instance there are over 40 languages. Indians are very friendly and this is good as it can have a positive effect on the manner at which they relate with foreigners. They are also very respectful to all and employers have good relationships with their employees. India is a resourceful country especially as it is known to provide its expertise regarding the construction of cement plants to the airports as well as to the railway systems. It has programs geared to ensuring that developing countries are provided for with feasibility and detailed technical evaluation studies. The program is effective in the sense that it provides support in training personnel in areas like agriculture as well as small scale industries. India is also very committed to ensuring that it promotes unity between the developed as well as the developing countries towards the new economic order. (www. dfat. gov. au). India has been firm in its stand of not interfering with internal affairs of other countries or nations. It however advocates for the adherence of the dignity of human beings. Regarding its position on disarmament it is highly committed to ensuring that the horrors of terrorism do not cause harm or destruction to mankind. To this effect it has joined other countries in banning nuclear weapons. Potential and pitfalls in international management and solutions. Major pitfalls in the country’s economy include the lack of privatization of government owned industries as that would increase efficiency and accountability. The populist pressures from the government are a major reason behind the lack of privatization of state owned industries. Major steps should also be taken so that the number of people living below the poverty line is reduced. The issue of unemployment is also an important one that should be well addressed. Encouraging people to be self employed as well as providing the appropriate tools will be a step forward in eradicating unemployment. Another critical issue that should be well addressed is the issue of a balanced rural urban divide. There is a problem in India where by approximately 70% of the population live in the rural areas or villages and this affects the pace by which rural urban growth takes place. (Panda and Gupta, 2004). A balanced development is what will see the Indian economy thrive. To be successful in business it will be appropriate to enhance the education system in India. This will be a step forward in ensuring that there is improved skill development. It is also critical to focus on skills development, improved governance as well as forging partnership in the private as well as public sector in the provision of infrastructures. Water is very essential and its scarcity ought to be effectively addressed. The biggest challenge that India faces is the population growth which will have a stressful impact on the countries infrastructures. There is an urgent need to control the population growth as an effort of trying to reduce the adverse effects that it would bring to the economy. To promote sustained growth economic reforms ought to be put in place so that the challenges can be well addressed. Fiscal discipline will be vital. International business is affected negatively by the fluctuations in the markets. The government ought to focus on those sectors that the economy is worst fairing in like health as well as in education. To further address the issue of unemployment it is critical to reform the labor laws so that more job opportunities are created. (Phansalkar S. 2005). Although agriculture plays an important role in the countries economy there is need to reduce over dependence. Reorganizing it in a manner that will promote the introduction of new technologies that would reduce the over reliance on climate for instance irrigation would also be vital. In an effort to reform the financial sector it will be appropriate to privatize some public sector banks as such a move will encourage efficiency and effectiveness. (Leung K and White S, 2004). To attract and retain Australian investors in India it has to ensure that its political system does not jeopardize with the investors activities. There have been cases where other foreign investors like US companies have preferred to close down instead of fighting in courts over legal requirement issues. Enhancing the structural systems will be a necessary step if investors are to be preserved in the country. Irrational tax policies as well as other forms of trade barriers need to be addressed as they act as a disincentive to trade and investment. (timesofindia. indiatimes. com). Advancing the level at which the infrastructure is being developed by increasing the finances put aside for the same will be critical in encouraging Australian investors. Enhancing the political reforms geared towards improving stability, privatization and deregulation as well as land reforms. An Australian based company can find the Indian market attractive or one with many opportunities. India is modernizing its infrastructure especially the transportation sector like the airports. This implies that there will be huge opportunities in infrastructure development like in roads, constructions, power plants, nuclear plants and air modernization. There is a considerable stable political environment that will not have adverse effects on businesses in India. (Phansalkar S. 2005). It also has a stable currency and the market is one of the biggest democratic markets with a huge middle class and this will be necessary for the company as it will provides for labor as well as potential market. The skilled labor can be tapped or exploited to provide labor for the foreign based company. There are minimal restrictions of entry to the Indian markets and the Australian based company will not face many challenges when trying to venture. References: CIA. The World Fact Book. India. Retrieved on 31st May 2008 from https://www. cia. gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in. html Kwok Leung and Steven White. 2004. Handbook of Asian Management. Birkhauser Publishers. Panda and Gupta. 2004. Mapping Cultural Diversity within India: A Meta-analysis of Some Recent Studies. Global Business Review. 5: 27-49 Phansalkar S. 2005. Opportunities And Strategies In Indian Business: Preparing for a Global India. Sage Publishers. India. Recent economic indicators. Retrieved on 31st May 2008 from http://www. dfat. gov. au/geo/fs/inia. pdf Swaminathan S Anklesaria Aiyar. 2001. What makes MNCs quit India? Retrieved on 31st May 2008 from http://timesofindia. indiatimes. com/articleshow/1602986123. cms Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs. 2007 Background Note: India. Retrieved on 31st May 2008 from http://www. state. gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3454. htm

Plato’s Perspectives on Society, Organization and Leadership Essay

Main views about society Plato wrote in his book called the Republic. The Republic was written around 380 (BC). In this book Plato tries to define justice, right order and character of the just city and the just man. In the Republic different philosophers like Socrates try to argue, what is the meaning of justice. They also discuss if a just man is happier than an unjust man, if they are ruled by just philosopher kings. (Brickhouse, Thomas & Smith, Nicholas, 2010) Plato view, that a just city has to be ruled by these philosopher kings. Plato believed in an aristocratic system of ruling, not the democratic way of ruling. The kings have to be educated by philosophers, so that they would be like philosophers. Or philosophers should be elected as rulers. Anyhow he did not like some much about democracy and little educated leaders. (Brickhouse, Thomas & Smith, Nicholas, 2010) Plato thinks that there are many dangers in the democracy. People do not always choose the wisest persons at the elections. Sometimes they choose those, who can speak nicely. The knowledge is not the main criteria for choosing people at the democracy, but Plato thinks that those who know should be elected as rulers. (Saarinen 1985, p.43) Plato was pessimistic about people. According to him common people were bad and acted normally irrationally. People lived according to their selfish desires and bad beliefs. People did not follow the laws by their hearts, but because they were afraid of punishment. (Plato 360 BC, p.45) According to Plato people could not live alone. They needed each other. Plato said, that it is good for people to live in communities, by this way people can exchange products. (Plato 360 BC, p.75) Plato believes that the society has to be well ordered, this will lead into good moral in the society. Fine social order and education will educate good people. These good people, who are well educated, will be better than their parents (People living before them.). (Plato 360 BC, p.117, 353, 380) Plato thinks that a human soul and society have similarities. They both have same particles. Parts of the soul are like social classes in the society. If these parts / social classes are in harmony, there will be justice. There are three different classes in the society: Productive, protective and governing class. Productive class is workers: farmers, blacksmiths, carpenters, ranchers, etc. Part of the soul for these people is appetite. Second class is protective class. These people are warriors and guardians. They are strong and courageous. Part of the soul for these people is the spirit. Third class is the governing. These people are rulers or philosopher kings. They are rational, wise, self-controlled. These people can make good decisions for the society. These people are like the reason part of the soul. These people are very few. (Saarinen 1985, p.42-43) Plato already saw corruption in the society. He said that it is needed rule of law to prevent corruption. The government and guardians have to really guard the society that the order and rule of law can exist. (Plato 360 BC, p.141) Love of wisdom should be one of main values of the society. (Plato 360 BC, p.397) There should be order, not anarchy, in the society. If there is order children can orderly live with their parents and they can learn from their parents. In the same way masters can learn from their scholars. There should be some fear between son and a father and pupil and a teacher. This fear keeps the order. (Plato 360 BC, p.328-329) Plato’s Perspectives on Organization Plato thought that there are three classes in the society, which should have a good co-operation and they should live in a harmony. According to Plato’s views organization has three different groups (classes). Somebody might also think that these groups (classes) have strict borderlines. This means that it is difficult to step from one group to another group. It is difficult to go over lines to another class at the organization. Plato sees an organization as an entity, which should be in harmony with its parts. Many modern organizational theoreticians have followed Plato, when they stress the unitary and well balanced nature of modern complex organizations. (Takala 1998, p.797) Plato thinks about the greatest evil and the greatest good at an organization. In His views evil is discord and distraction. On the other hand good is unity. There has to be unity in the organization, all the members should have common experiences (pleasures etc.). (Plato 360 BC, p.198) Justice is important thing for every organization. In the organization order brings justice and the organization has to keep the justice. (Plato 360 BC, p.6) If there is injustice in the organization, it will lead into quarrels and fights, people will become each other’s enemies. Injustice will disturb the organization’s basis for human co-operation. (Plato 360 BC, p.53-54) Obedience is an important factor at the organization. Workers should obey their masters. Everybody should live under clear hierarchy and follow the orders given by those, who are over them. (Plato 360 BC, p.36, 192, 297) Plato’s Perspectives on Leadership Plato thinks, that ruler has to be philosopher. This means, that only philosophers can be good rulers. In this way main character of a leader is his/her philosophical capacity. Leader (ruler) has to know the real being and leader (ruler) has to distinguish belief from the real knowledge. This is the highest virtue for a leader: To separate beliefs and real facts. (Saarinen 1985, p. 44) Plato thinks, that leader should love the truth. He teaches that a leader is like a captain and his ship or a doctor and his medicine. These professions (doctor, captain) cannot be practised by everyone by nature. So to be a leader is not by nature, leaders should be educated. Plato thinks that one of the main tasks for the education system is to produce these philosopher kings. (Plato 360 BC, p.233) Plato thinks that a leader has to be a just person. The stronger (leader) cannot abuse his power over the weaker. The leader has to be just and there has to be justice in the society. Leader guides this social order, so that society can live in harmony. Leader guides citizens (class of citizens) to carry out tasks for which they are suited and not interfering with the work of others. (Takala 1998, p.791) Plato sees leadership as an important part of a functioning society. He thinks that leadership is an educational catalyst in the society. Plato thinks that leader has got two important tasks: to control the implementation of education and to control the propagation of thoughts. Plato sees this controlling as an essential function in the society, that’s why the controllers must be philosophers. (Takala 1998, p.790-791) According to Plato education is needed to produce good philosopher leaders. Education leaves its mark on leaders. On the other hand education makes division between leaders and other people. Platonic education gives wisdom and mystical skills (real knowledge) to the leaders. (Takala 1998, p.792) Plato sees leadership as a duty of a philosopher. The essential thing is the true knowledge, if somebody has got the knowledge he can be the leader. The philosopher has got knowledge and he can rule. And the man, who is not philosophical, has got only a true beliefs or opinions. This corresponds that he cannot be the leader. (Takala 1998, p.792) In Plato’s thinking there is the concept of the leadership of meaning. The leader has to create meaning, he has to sustain it and sometimes it has to be changed. In this way leadership can be seen as a social process. This social process includes all those means by which leadership creates new meanings by rituals, symbolizing and â€Å"naming†. The attributes of a powerful leader is also in the Plato’s thinking. One attribute in Plato’s thinking is the charisma, which is said to be widely discussed in modern leadership theories. A leader must have charisma in order to be successful in his actions. Without it the leader is not able to do his job, to lead some complex organization. (Takala 1998, p.797) References http://www.springerlink.com/content/u348q477q0583068/fulltext.pdf

Accounting for Charitable Contributions

A look at the financial structure of charity organizations and to what extent these are effective in supporting intended objectives. This paper takes a look at the financial structure of charity organizations and at what extent these are effective in supporting intended objectives. The author argues that often charities spend donations not in connection to their stated mission, and in many cases the money goes not where it is most needed. Americans are a very generous people, reaching into their pockets again and again to provide their personal and corporate dollars to support what they believe to be worthy causes they may not have the time to personally volunteer, but most are willing, at least occasionally, to write a check to support those that do.The U.S. has 1.4 million tax-exempt organizations. Its probably a safe bet that most are well-intentioned and honest. But a lot of them are simply inefficient they spend donations meant to help people in need on staff salaries or direct-mail marketing. Some do not even put donations to use toward their stated mission (Forbes, 1999).

Planning and Recruitment Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Planning and Recruitment - Coursework Example In your opinion which one is more effective? Justify your answer. (200 words) Q7: Explain, at least 4 different ways to Attract and Retain Great Employees. (200 words) Q8: Explain the types of compensation are available in organizations (Mention at least 4 types). (200 words) Importance of effective Planning for future organizational staffing requirements Human resources planning simply refer to the classic HR administrative functions, along with the evaluation and the identification of human resources requirements for meeting of organizational goals. Human resources planning should be a vital component as it provides competitive advantage in the marketplace. (www.wisgeek.com) Effect planning for the future organizational staffing would result in sufficient staff, with the right mixture of talent, who can perform appropriate functions when needed. In today’s corporate environment, it is viewed as a valuable component for augmenting value to an organization. Both the employees and the company will many times realize many benefits of planning over the long-run. In the uncertain business settings, the significance of this strategic human resources planning can become more obvious. A company that reacts to the circumstances by cutting staff as their measure to reduce the short-term overhead can simply create unwanted repercussions. What initially was like a smart and the necessary move to economize in the lean times can then end up costing the company much more in its long-run. The resources that would require to subsequently recruiting, hire, and train fresh employees may well exceed any short-term cost savings but ultimately lead to longer term benefits. It’s a fact that many of us work for earning money yet these monetary benefits are not the only sole criteria while selecting any job. Great emphasize on the good HR system in organization is to sort people who are much job contented and love what is their four offer on sale. Construct a Job Adverti sement of Human Resources Manager vacancy taking into consideration the below fields: EAT JET 004 is a new passenger travelling plane with passenger seats equivalent to 300. It is looking for candidates between the ages of 25 – 35 years old as Human resource manager of its airline service EAT JET 004. All applying candidates must have an experience in the field human resource experience of at least eight years and in the field of airplane specifically two years. This is to ensure that the human resource manager is well aware of the latest breakthroughs with which the EAT JET airline service faces All of the interested candidates should apply at the official website of EAT JET airline service candidates fulfilling the eligibility criteria would be entertained first with a short list interview followed by a finalizing candidate to fill the applied post. Internal and External Recruitment Strategies The Internal Recruitment is just like recruiting from inside of the organization, this can build a strong loyalty within the organization as the employees have chance to change their position after a much longer period of time. The employees are not pressed to look

'Please answer me as soon as possible - Pragmatic failure in Essay

'Please answer me as soon as possible - Pragmatic failure in non-native speakers' email request to faculty' - Critical analysis - Essay Example nomidou-Kogetsidis states that such aspects of e-mail message as directness, the lack of greetings, and improper usage of titles and names are all aspects of an e-mail which convey to the recipient the perception of impoliteness. Imperatives are especially tricky in this regard, as the recipients invariably see imperatives, without modifiers, to be rude, even when accompanied with the word â€Å"please.† The way to modify imperatives, however, are to acknowledge the burden on the professors’ time. Such an example of this would be to say, instead of, â€Å"please give me the notes for the class I missed,† to say â€Å"if it is not a bother, and not too time-consuming, could you please send me the notes for the class that I missed.† Moreover, students used grounders most often as a way of modifying the message, and grounders are reasons why a student has to make the request (â€Å"I need notes for Thursday, as I had to take my sick grandmother to the hospit al that day†). Although Economidou-Kogetsidis states that there are alternative explanations for the students’ overall directness in composing the e-mails and lack of greetings, including the fact that Greek is different from English, that is most likely a function of young people to be direct and brief, and that the students are using avoidance strategies, Economidou-Kogetsidis states that the students should still learn the proper modes of e-mail communication to avoid pragmatic failure in the future. This piece of research fits into the larger research context in that it deals with pragmatics, and the field of pragmatics is the rubric under which this research falls. In particular, the study of pragmatics is the study of how a linguistic content of a statement and the context of its enunciation affect reasoners inferences and interpretation of what is said (Oaksford & Chater, 2010, p.. 233). A person may make pragmatic inferences based on lexical inferences, and lexical inferences are â€Å"the process by

DISSERTATION--what motivation methods are used in the hotels in Essay

DISSERTATION--what motivation methods are used in the hotels in Sheffield to motivate part time university students who work in the frontline - Essay Example The insinuation of this add to is further indestructible as international students, when spoken as a amount of the total number of students enrolled in hospitality course universities in Sheffield, rose from5.5 percent in 1991 to 9.6 percent in 1997 (Ballard, B. and J. Clanchy 1997). Throughout this period so, universities in Australia, Canada, USA, UK experienced an internationalisation of their action; together in terms of the number of worldwide students studying intercontinental higher education programmes, and an add to in the width of international students, with around one in ten of the total enrolment make overseas. Frequently, the prevalence of international students that study for an Australia, Canada, USA, UK requirement start from Asia. Dobson et al. state that: Moreover, for part time university students studying human resource management (HRM) as a core subject, chapter will serve as a textbook at higher levels of undergraduate study and postgraduate/Masters study. For business management students studying HRM as a core subject or an option, this text will serve as secondary/further reading for motivation methods. As a sectoral source it builds upon introductions in organizational behaviour, people management or employee relations, and will be useful at higher undergraduate and post-graduate/Masters/Masters in Business Administration (MBA) levels. Social science students may also be interested in the research, as industrial relations and the employment relationship of part time students with motivation are very important dimensions of the sociology of work. For them this text will represent a rich source of information on contemporary characteristics of service sector work that can exemplify theoretical sociological perspectives, such as fragmentation and feminization of labour, and inform debates on labour process theory. Here the chapter will provide secondary/ further reading on optional courses (Barron, P. and C.

Marketing Strategy for Products Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Marketing Strategy for Products - Essay Example The success of a product cannot be achieved without creating a brand name for the product. There are various strategies used for brand marketing such as competitive analysis and positioning. While taking into consideration the types of strategies to implement on branding, it is important to consider how the products fit in the target market as well as the organization’s objectives. This report will analyze the major strategies used in market planning by the Johnson's & Johnson's Company in branding their J&J baby powder. The report discuses major product characteristics such as color, size, shape and materials used in the manufacture. The report also explains the strategies used in branding such as position as well as how the product fits in the business market and the organizations objectives. Introduction J&J baby powder is designed to keep the skin dry, soft and smooth. Powder has been used for generations. The main users of baby powder are mothers. However, the company is also targeting at other adults who are not mothers. First of all, let's consider mothers as main buyers category. The J&J baby powder will keep the skin of their babies soft. The use of it will ensure that the baby is as comfortable as possible thereby keeping the baby calm. The delicate perfumes of chamomile and lavender will make the use of J&J baby powder more exciting and enjoyable. The use of chamomile and lavender in J&J baby powder is designed to help the reduction of friction in the skin and the clothes such as nappies and pampers. By eliminating friction the baby will be free from nappy rashes thereby keeping the baby’s skin soft and smooth. Now let's pay attention to the category of adult consumers who buy the product for themselves. The J&J baby powder has been designed for a wide variety of consumers including people affected by allergies. Special care has been put into consideration in choosing the ingredients in order to attend to the special needs of people aff ected by certain perfumes. The J&J baby powder is also designed to care for the skin by absorbing excess skin moisture. This product is mild and gentle so as to sooth cracked and sore skin and restore the injured skin to its normal texture. Besides, the J&J baby powder is designed to be used by adults in reduction of friction from wearing tight trousers and blouses, as well as sweat reduction. It can be applied in the face to control sweat; it can act as a deodorant to control smelly armpits. The J&J baby powder is effective in absorbing moisture and will absorb sweat in the face and armpits leaving the skin dry and soft. The product is suitable for applying in between fingers to reduce and eliminate finger warts too. Main characteristics of the J&J baby powder According to Juran, M.J. and De Fao (2010), the main characteristics of a product include color, size, material, shape and benefits. The baby powder comes in 500 grams, 200 grams and 100 grams potions packed in sophisticated pink, white and blue plastic bottles. The shape of the container will be that of a bottle neck. The bottle will be fitted with a cap that will have small holes or pouring or sprinkling the powder. The cap will have been well designed such that it is able to be capped and closed tightly. Even if the baby plays with the bottle the whole day no powder will be spilled. The J&J baby powder is designed to care for the young ones in every respect. The colors of the baby powder containers are light in

Napolean and Stonewall Jackson Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Napolean and Stonewall Jackson - Essay Example Napoleon’s Influence on War Strategies Until Napoleon, the act of war was there were either the state rulers or the trusted warriors who were regarded as responsible of the entire affair. However, Napoleon and Fredrick II had introduced a new concept of ‘warrior-king’ who can apply diplomatic as well as military power for his own aims â€Å"†¦and thus could more directly tailor military actions to strategic aims--and more thoroughly conclude peace following decisive military events†2. The warfare was in evolution even in the age of Napoleon. He had cleverly noticed the problems of sustenance and movement of armies in the battlefield and he took advantage of it. He had increased the mobility of the armies and had applied his creative tactics in the art of warfare, especially in the quick formation of army combinations. His creativity and insight into the affairs of War tactics had won him great victories. Critics believe that Napoleon’s victory l ies mainly to his ability in synthesizing and exploiting the developments made by others. He did not rely on personal novelties; rather he tried to gain concepts from the war tactics applied by others. This approach ended the earlier â€Å"force employment, as opposed to weapons technology or logistical means†3. â€Å"Napoleon was about action; he did not share Jomini’s focus on principles†.4 To him, war was what is done in the battlefield, not in books. Though napoleon had not proposed a definite theory of War as his main concern was application of tactics, Jomini and Clausewitz have interpreted his actions and strategic aims to lay a basis for modern art and science of war. They had studied the operational circumstances and strategies applied by napoleon and they had added the active factors in the theory and art of war operations: pivotal points, main focus, climax, etc. Operational Arts â€Å"Operational arts† is a modern concept that deals with the c onception and execution of military operations through the direction of military forces for particular strategic intentions. The whole operation involves the combining of the forces and allocating of the assets to planned units. Thus, it forms a bridge between strategy and tactics by building an association between the aims of war and the actual fight in it, and seeks to attain a level between these. Napoleonic Impact on Operational Arts Many critics believe that the origin of the concept of operational arts lie back to eighteenth century with the theorists belonging to â€Å"the Soviet inter-war†. However until recently, this term referred to only a combination of activities performed in the battlefield, such as: defining the routes of attack, scavenging and stocking, and barriers along with the growth of overall mans, unceasing processes athwart manifold battles of war, and the distribution of power among dogmatic and armed leaders. Later, Napoleonic wars as well as the ind ustrial revolution developed them into a true set of operations. Napoleonic wars introduced large groups of inspired men-of-war while the other had provided with the sources for army’

Cultural Analysis Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Cultural Analysis - Research Paper Example Healthcare provision is still behind in upper-middle-class countries. People in Panama have no confidence in the health care provision. They believe God is the only alternative for curing diseases. It made the researcher believe the level of education in Panama is still behind. Civilization has not taken root in most parts of Panama. To understand the women's position in the Panamanian’s society, the interviewee gave an in-depth discussion. The specific questions were how the marriage customs were practiced, attitude about separation, how women express modesty and roles of women in the society. The answers for the questions were different from what the researcher expected. It turned out that the women had no major position in Panamanian’s society. The researcher agreed with the interviewer that it would take time for Panama, to embrace the role of women in the society. For a health care provider to be culturally sensitive, he has to understand the roles of gender, sexual orientation, faith, tastes, and socioeconomic status. Physicians have to be sensitive to the unique needs of the Panama people. Sensitivity to their needs will improve the service delivery. Furthermore, asking appropriate questions, which are open-ended, will demonstrate a particular health care provider is culturally sensitive. Communication is an essential tool that will improve the patient-doctor relationship. The communication means should be able to bridge the differences between the culture of medicine and Panamanian’s beliefs and practices.

Offshore Jobs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Offshore Jobs - Essay Example are some of the countries where MNCs from USA, UK, Germany and other developed nations have started outsourcing the jobs. This trend has picked up in a big way in the last 15 to 20 years. In fact, as this trend kept growing, a debate also started in the political spheres about the job losses taking place in USA, Germany, UK etc. In the recently concluded Presidential elections in the USA, outsourcing became a big issue, with the candidates spelling out their own versions of the truth on outsourcing by many companies. But as per the indications available the trend appears unstoppable in the immediate future. The high turnover rates amongst IT staff in some of the Indian cities points towards the availability of opportunities in this sector which propels the staff to switchover jobs from one company to another looking. The research conducted by McKinsey Global Institute (MGI) points out that even after a huge hike in salaries in the outsourcing destinations, the salaries are still quite low as compared to the cities in the America and leading EU nations. While the criteria of selecting the sites depends on a variety of factors like, work culture, infrastructure availability, talent pool etc. besides the wages; the study points out that many companies have preferred to go for tried and tested nations like India and China. Though the infrastructure is far from satisfactory in some of the cities of India, still some of the companies have expressed their confidence in these cities based on their past experience and the availability of other similar companies in the vicinity. At the same time, the study points out that many companies like Amazon.com, Telefonica, Intel and Sakonnet Technology have preferred offshore centers in the African cities like Cape Town, Tangier, Cordoba, Rio de Jenerio etc. But in general it has been found out that some of the hot spots have become favorites of companies which have followed the trend observing the 'first mover's cost advantage'. But this trend also results in overheating of the job market in those cities and the infrastructure too starts deteriorating. Citing the example of Gurgaon, a place near the capital city of India the study finds out that the area has become very populous with many shopping malls, multi-story apartments etc. when leading companies set up their operational units in these cities. But gradually it has started taking its toll with paralyzing traffic congestions, frequent power cuts, communication network breakdowns etc. But, the fact that so far the reverse trend has not started, points towards the cost advantage still being favourable to the MNCs. The availability of huge numbers of unemployed educated youth at offshore hot spots makes these locations all the more attractive. MGI studied 28 low-wage countries and figur ed out that about 6.4 million young professionals are available in 2003 for far less number of jobs. It has been projected through the study that supply of college educated talent will continue to outstrip the demand from MNCs offshore operations for many-many years to come. In general some of the key factors identified for choosing a location include Cost, availability of skills, suitable political and legal environment; market potential of the region or country; risk factors; and infrastructure. Though destinations like Dubai have also been

The Us Foreign Policy Essay Example for Free

The Us Foreign Policy Essay The political norm â€Å"domestically earned and internationally achieved† can be attributed to the famous 25-year old American National Guard pilot Charles A. Lindenberg who was the first person to fly solo on his Spirit of St Louis Airplane non-stop across the Atlantic Ocean and landed at the Le Bourget Aerodrome in Paris on May 21st 1927 (Jantunen, 1998). Basically, the norm domestically earned and internationally achieved lays the chronicle of Lindenberg who then worked with the US Air force and Defense Department, wherein his famous voyage was patterned by the US’ foreign defense strategy in World War II during the 1930’s (Cole, W. , 1998; in Jantunen, A. , 1998). As a result, the US domestic affairs were able to cross international borders and foster foreign relations that eventually led to the creation of its foreign policies. The use and review of literatures will be the guiding methodology of this paper which will discuss the US’ interstate (domestic) and intrastate (international) affairs in view of evolving its foreign policy. Influences that shape US foreign policy The democratic processes involving the sovereign will of the people are the bottom-line of policy initiatives through legislation. On the other hand, situational factors primarily influence the sudden enactment of a policy. According to the book, ‘American Public Policy: An Introduction’, published in 2006 by Clark Cochran, Lawrence Mayer, T. Carr and N. Joseph Cayer, policies are classified according to purposes, types, and goods. Basically, the classification of a public policy plays a key role in promoting moral and social values. For example, if the classification of a public policy pertains to preserving domestic peace and order, it also results in the formation of international treaties against terrorism by allied governments. In other words, a policy has a dual role— in order to secure the interstate (domestic), there must be an intrastate (foreign) policy consistent with preventing the vulnerability of the people and state from potential external attacks or threats of terrorism. The 9/11 Tragedy objectively result in a large public influence that resolutely condemned and abhorred terrorism. In effect, the US Congress has legislated and enacted series of homeland defense and security policies that has presently empowered the National Strategy for Homeland Security Act of 2007. The enforcement of that policy works within the intrastate strategic framework, in which the scope of enforcement crosses international borders. In sum, it may be perceived that US foreign policy represents the domestic needs of the people or the interest of the state to uphold the economic resources and political affairs of the government. Moreover, the processes in creating US foreign involve various international perspectives. President’s formal and informal foreign policy making powers The Presidents formal and informal foreign policy-making powers today work two ways— first, the President being the Chief Executive, can veto a decree or enact orders having the formal constitutional mandate and second, he or she informally can influence ministerial function through the so-called â€Å"mandamus duty† [having extraordinary writ commanding an official to perform a ministerial act that the law recognizes as an absolute duty and not a matter for the officials discretion] as exemplified by the enactment of National Strategy for Information Sharing (NSIS) in year 2007 (E. O. 13356, 2006; Sec. 11; in NSIS, 2007). The formal and informal Presidential powers may be deduced as a combined political capability of the President that emphasizes the â€Å"political will† in enacting or rejecting policies that may be favorable or unfavorable to both political and economic affairs of the government. Moreover, these powers may be best described by the historical process of US foreign policy creation that can be traced in the Monroe Doctrine. Based on Steven W. Hook’s book, ‘U. S. Foreign Policy: The Paradox of World Power’, the National Security Act of 1947, which created the Department of Defense (DOD), the National Security Council (NSC), and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), provides an excellent example of how policy decisions are largely made from prior policy experiences. Hook pointed out that the combination of formal and informal political powers most likely becomes a personal preference on the political will of the president, in which today, according to Hook, the â€Å"Bush Doctrine† has supplanted the Monroe Doctrine that once opposed the European foreign policy. In short, Hook’s perception reflects the presidential formal and informal policy making powers today that subsist a culture of the United States foreign policy which is considered both moralistic and self-interested and which stems from geographical factors and colonial history (Hook, 2007). Significance of political terminologies Based on the interpretation of Roberta Tovey (2000), author of the article ‘Best Firms More Alike Than Different Around the Globe’, an adhocracy refers to an organization that lacks structure, which is opposite to a â€Å"bureaucracy†. In short, adhocracy pertains to the creation of a task group also called as â€Å"ad-hoc† (impromptu), which is a type of structure that can be found in creativity-based companies which are flexible as new projects arise. To cite the case of the â€Å"Watergate Scandal† implicating former US President Richard Nixon, the term â€Å"political questions† include the conduct of foreign policy, the ratification of constitutional amendments, and the organization of each states government as defined in its own constitution. The rule preventing federal courts from deciding such cases is called the political question doctrine (United States v. Nixon, 418 U. S. 683, 94 S. Ct. 3090, 41 L. Ed. 2d 1039; US-DOJ, 1974; in Legal Dictionary, 2008). During the time of former US President Harry Truman, the National Security Act of July 26, 1947 created the National Security Council under the chairmanship of the President, with the Secretaries of State and Defense as its key members, to coordinate foreign policy and defense policy, and to reconcile diplomatic and military commitments and requirements (US-Public Law 80; 253, 1947; in NSC, 2008). As cited from the US Public Law, the alliances of political personalities in US government agencies, the interest groups of lobbying organizations, and the legislative committee members with jurisdiction over a particular functional area of government policy are said to be â€Å"triangles strong as iron. The relationships are so politically powerful that it directly influence and interferes with the general interests in policy-making. Moreover, in a Presidential turn over ceremony (farewell speech) of US former President Dwight Eisenhower in 1961, he stated that â€Å"the immense military establishment and a large arms industry is new in the American experience that influence economic, political, even spiritual aspects felt in every city, every State house, every office of the Federal government†. Eisenhower defined the term â€Å"military-industrial complex† or MIC which refers to the US Armed Forces’ suppliers of weaponry, services, and civil government (Eisenhower, D. , 1961). Conclusion Based on the brief review of the US foreign policy, it may be concluded that it has earned domestic power and achieved international dominance. The presidential â€Å"political will† amidst public dispensation basically evolves and transforms the intrastate affairs. It may also be deduced that the political system develops these dominant powers result in foreign policies that could either be beneficial or detrimental to international boundaries. References Carr, T. , Cayer, J. N. , Cochran, C, and Mayer, L. , and (2006). ‘American Public Policy: An Introduction’.Thompson/Wadsworth Publishing, 8th Edition. ISBN: 0-534-60163-4. Hook, S. W. (2007) ‘U. S. Foreign Policy: The Paradox of World Power’. CQ Press, 2nd Edition, ISBN 978-0-87289-466-2. Retrieved 10 April 2008 from http://www. cqpress. com/product/US-Foreign-Policy-The-Paradox-of-World. html. Jantunen, A. (1998). ‘Developing for Peace: An Analysis of Charles A. Lindbergh’s Views on American Foreign Policy’. Retrieved 10 April 2008 from http://www. charleslindbergh. com/pdf/lindbergh2. pdf. Legal Dictionary (2008). ‘Political Question’. United States v. Nixon, 418 U. S. 683, 94 S. Ct. 3090, 41 L. Ed. 2d 1039, US-DOJ (1974). Retrieved 10 April 2008 from http://legal-dictionary. thefreedictionary. com/Political+question+doctrine. National Strategy for Information Sharing. (2007). ‘Information Sharing: Successes and Challenges In Improving Terrorism- Related Information Sharing’. Retrieved 10 April 2008 from http://www. state. gov/html. Roberta, T. (2000). ‘Best Firms More Alike Than Different Around the Globe’. Retrieved 10 April 2008 from http://www. msi. org. US Department of State (2007). ‘National Strategy for Homeland Securit

Is music still true?

Is music still true? Is Music Still True? Authenticity is a major issue in popular music, and it also seems to verify the differences between ‘rock and ‘pop. To musicians, rock is the genre that has authenticity and is most trusted, while the pop genre tends to be more of a commercialized type of music, which most musicians today believe that the ‘pop music is about the glamour and the money. In the end it comes down to the listeners point of view. In this argument, authenticity is understood as ‘true to its origins. Some say that with the new technology today, its hard to make anything sound authentic. In some cases, for example Jack White from such bands as The White Stripes, The Raconteurs, and The dead Weather, have stayed away from technology when it comes to the recording end. White also attempts to capture authenticity by using old instruments, to capture the essence of the old time sound. Like White, other artists as well find that the new technology today takes the ‘soul out of the music, as well as go far enough to use authentic old style instruments. Although some believe that you can use technology today to give it even more of a rich authentic sound. Most people believe that ‘soul is the key component to authenticity, while some believe that it is about reenacting the innovators of the past. Some believe that songs or artists can still have authentic meaning. One artists that has dealt with issues of authenticity was 60s folk star Bob Dylan. Dylans first electric album rainy day woman had a enormous impact on his fans. The fans were enraged at his desertion from the authentic folk roots that he was so well known for. He received some credit with the fact that his lyrics and song topics were still awarded as authentic. Dylans song were known to make a strong stand toward politics, and had simple lyrics but had complex understanding. Then there are artists like John Mayer, who keep to the authenticity on every level, but seems to add his own modern twist. Mayer is a well known blues guitarist who keeps to his ‘bluesy guitar riffs, but with a sound of a distorted guitar. Mayer at times has also been subjected to the ‘pop commercial genre, with his higher pitched voice and for his criticized lyrics. Artists like these prove that authenticity in music, does not mean that it has to be exactly like the origins it came from. Certain authors have pondered that this distinction may be misleading, but even so, have divided authenticity into several categories (Moore, 2002): first person authenticity, where original music is performed in a manner that makes the audience believe the music is authentic: that is, authentically created, and performed; and third person authenticity, where a performer of music succeeds in conveying the impression of having accurately conveyed the expression of an – absent – other (Moore, 2002). Authenticity is assumed, by many authors, to be inscribed to a musician or performer, yet this assumption is wholly wrong, in that authenticity is actually ascribed to musicians and performers. Authenticity, as a value, is something that must be constructed by each and every listener personally, according to their own response to the music in question. It is only after the listener sees the performance of the music by the musician, that they can begin to understand the musicians relationship to the piece, and their interpretation of the piece, and only then can the musician be said to have any authenticity. The following is based on this view of authenticity as an ascribed value. Eric Clapton and his music are used as an example by many authors on the subject of authenticity in music, and these discussions invariably fall into Moores (2002) second category of authenticity: third-person authenticity. Eric Clapton, a highly able and respected musician, gained a huge worldwide following in the 1960s for his interpretations and performances, solo and with his band, Cream. I say ‘interpretation as many of the songs that Clapton, and Cream performed, such as Crossroads, were not original songs, and were re-worked by Clapton. Crossroads was a song originally written and performed by the country blues star Robert Johnson (Moore, 2002). Johnson led a tragic life, dying early in mysterious circumstances, and living his life as a poor man, with only his guitar for comfort, on which he composed blues music, through which he explored his own life through distorting the sound of the instrument to provide an analogue for his own tortured soul (Moore, 2002). It is argued that, to a certain extent, when Clapton performed Crossroads, he did not authenticate Johnsons music by reinforcement, rather his interpretation of Johnsons song authenticated Claptons own musical presence (Moore, 2002). It was the appropriation of the ‘black blues tradition, of which Johnson was a part, which gave Clapton the material through which he constructed himself as an authentic performer (Moore, 2002). Claptons appropriation of the ‘black blues tradition was then cemented by his full discovery of this tradition, from BB King to Freddie and Albert King, from country blues through to Robert Johnson (Moore, 2002). This tracing of the origins of a practice back to the originator of the practice thus reinforces the tradition to the tracer: this phenomenon, and is well known in discussions of authenticity in popular music (Moore, 2002); this process is also necessarily circular, as Clapton was authenticated via his appropriation of Johnson, who was then authenticated by his appropriation by an artist he himself had a great deal of respect for (Moore, 2002), since only music that is worth acquiring will be appropriated. As Moore (2002) argues, Clapton conveyed the message ‘this is what it is like to be me to his audience, using the message ‘this is what it was like to be Johnson. Thus, authenticity of execution (Moore, 2002) arises when a performer succeeds in conveying the impression of accurately conveying the expression of an absent other (Moore, 2002), and Clapton is a particularly apt example of this third-person authenticity. Thus, during his performances of particular songs (for example, Crossroads) Clapton speaks the truth of his own situation, as during his performances, he can only convey his own particular expression of a particular song openly, honestly and therefore, truthfully. As to whether Clapton manages to convey the truth of the situation of absent others, this is a difficult one to answer. In order for an audience to believe that Clapton is conveying the truth of an absent other, the audience needs to know that Clapton has respect for that absent other, enough respect to have made a thorough study of the tradition to which that musician belonged, a study which allows Claptons interpretation of that particular piece of music to be authentic in the sense of being true to its origins. As to whether Clapton speaks the truth of his own culture and thereby represents present others when performing the music of absent others, this is an even more difficult point of discussion. This point needs to rely on a meaning for the word ‘culture in order to fully answer this question, and this is difficult. Can Clapton, a white man, from a white culture, ever delve deeply enough in to a tradition to be able to authentically convey music from an entirely different (‘black) culture? Cultural purists would argue not, but in todays multicultural society, the answer to this question is increasingly (and increasingly believably) likely to be yes, at least for white audiences, and for ‘blacks who agree with the idea, and principles, of cross-cultural artistic expression. However, it has to be recognized that there are certain tensions and resistance encountered in the process of cross-cultural appropriation of music, particularly in this case, as it concerns the black community, who see their musical heritage as something pure, a badge of identity entirely their own. This is entirely understandable, particularly in reference to appropriation of the blues tradition by whites, as blues is a black music, which arose out of unspeakable suppression and hardship at the hands of the white man. Tensions that arise from within the black community at the (mis)use of the blues tradition by whites should therefore be listened to, and could also be used as a lesson to learn from. A recent book by Todd Gitlin (2001) argues that we, as a society, are becoming so overwhelmed with information from the media, in so many varieties of the media, that we are becoming immune to its lure, and are even beginning to shy away from this media onslaught. It seems that one way people can avoid this media onslaught is to search out authentic performances from authentic musicians, as this would guarantee quality and purity of enjoyment. Authenticity of an artists like Clapton, really come down to the listeners and their opinion on whether or not the artists is authentic. Music has always been about the listeners, so they are the only ones who can really decide what is authentic. Most fans will say the authentic ones are the ones who ‘keep it real, which is just another way of saying keeping it true to the original genre. Which makes Authenticity in music a very long ongoing topic. There will always be those who say ‘he is to commercial for me and those who will think that that artists perfected and recreated a new side of the authentic origin. Artists, like Clapton, who appropriate music from other cultures, and who we can argue do this in a compassionate manner, are perhaps the guiding lights for many of todays media-overwhelmed generation; they serve, for many, as a good introduction to the traditions from which such music is drawn, from which point the interested can do their own research and discover the authentic music from which such adaptations are developed. Cross-cultural musical evolution can only be a process for good in terms of the development of music, as long as authenticity and the ‘donor culture are respected.

Languages Are Constantly Changing English Language Essay

Languages Are Constantly Changing English Language Essay Languages are changing as the world is constantly changing. After the Second World War, English neologisms emerged in a remarkable way. New vocabulary came into existence due to new technologies and new discoveries such as ; computing, internet , cell phones and the like. Peoples daily activities like dancing, looking and many others, renewed their popularity giving birth to new lexicon. In deed, new words are invented rapidly and are developed quickly thanks to mass communication. They appear and fall into disuse when they have served their momentary purpose ( Bernhart 54).Only a few of them will get recorded in glossaries of neologisms of general dictionaries. The matter of neologism becomes a new hot spot of research owing to its practical and prevailing use in reality. The study of neologisms evoked a whole cluster of questions: -What are the reasons beyond the rise of new lexicon? -Why are some new words just a flash in a pan? -Why are other words successful? -What are the qualities that make a word successful? -Are Neologisms markers of changes in societies? Chapter 01:Literature Review 1.Definition of a Neologism The term neologism originates from Greek: neos means new, logos means word, i. e. a neologism is literally a new word. Neologism is the creation of a new lexical item as a response to changed circumstances in the external world, which achieves some currency within a speech community(qtd. in Chrystal 1992: 264) at a particular time. In linguistics, a neologism is a recently-coined word, or the act of inventing a word or phrase. Additionally it can imply the use of old words in a new sense (i.e., giving new meanings to existing words or phrases). Neologisms are especially useful in identifying new inventions, new phenomena, or old ideas which have taken on a new cultural context. The word neologism was coined around 1800 and was, at that time, a neologism itself. A person who develops a neologism is sometimes called a neologist; neology is the act of introducing a new word into a language. l. 2. Background of English Neologisms The famous American new word expert John Algeo wrote in the preface of his book Fifty Years Among the New Words, Although the dictionary of new word is warmly welcomed by readers only in recent years, actually the compiling of English dictionary began with the collection of new word ever since 1604. The early English dictionaries like Table Alphabeticall (1604, Robert Cawdrey), English Expositor (1616, John Bullokar), and The English Dictionarie (1623, Henry Cockeram) all embodied some hard words, which were absolutely new words to people in those days. Thus, those dictionaries somehow held the characteristics of neologism dictionary. However, the scientific and systematic study of neologism began at 200 years later, the 20th century. In 1902, Leon Mead published a book named Word-Coinage, being an Inquiry into Recent Neologisms, also a Brief Study of Literary Style, Slang, and Provincialisms, which said to be the first book studying neologism in the 20th. Although it was not a neologism dictionary, it contained some articles about new words. Whats more, Mead put forward the idea of making research on new words for the first time in the history. He also provided lots of examples of new words created by some American writers at that time. In 1920, C.Alphonso Smith, the dean of the English department of American Navy Institute wrote a book entitled New Words Self-defined, in which 420 new words were illustrated by examples. This had proved to be a big progress in the research on the neologisms. From 1937 to 1940, the famous American scholar Dwight Bolinger first applied newspapers and magazines to introduce new word. He created a column, The Living Language, in the newspaper, Words. In 1943, the column was brought into American speech and the title was changed into Among the New Words. Then, in the next year,Professor I. Willis Russell took the place of Bolinger and became the chief-editor of the column. He wrote articles entitled Words and Meanings, New, to introduce new words and their new meanings. War is said to be the major cradle for the born of new words. Majorie Taylor, a librarian in New York, collected numerous neologisms created during the World War II. In 1944, Taylor compiled a word-list, The Language of World War II: Abbreviation, captions, Quotations, Slogans, Titles and Other Terms and Phrases, in which every new word was explained. Similarly, Clarence Barnhart published his Dictionary of U.S. Army Terms. At that time, some academic magazines also published articles to introduce new words. Many neologism dictionaries in the 1950s are very popular, especially the Dictionary of New Words in English compiled by Paul Charles Berg in 1953 and The Dictionary of New Words by Mary Reifer in 1955. During 1950s, Mr. Paul Charles Berg did a lot of job to collect new words about the war, which brought us his Dictionary of New Words in English in 1953. After the World War II, science and technology development had greatly influenced the society. Subsequently, a lot of scientific and technical words were flooding into the language field. A lot of neologism dictionaries about words in those fields were published. Two of them are mostly welcomed: An Explaining and Pronouncing Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Words by W. E. Flood Michael West and Words of Sciences and the History Blind Them by Isaac Asimov. From 1970s on, the study of English neologism drew great attention from western scholars, many of them established special column to introduce new words in English, such as William Safire who was well known for his On Language in New York Times weekly and Anne H. Soukhanow who was the chief-editor of Word Watch. In Safires column, he provided a considerably clear explanation of new words by citing typical examples, exploring their origins and performing their current usage. Besides, the American Dialect Association Dispatches introduced some new words yearly to the public. For instance, in 1994, information superhighway was rewarded as the newest word; cybersex was the most surprising word and mosaic culture the most unnecessary word. The digital revolution in 1990s is the radical reshaping and restructuring of social patterns. Because of the wild spread of internet, America is speaking a whole new language, said Shawn Holley in his The New Word Revolution. Lots of neologisms that have a historical significance by reason of the influence they exerted on the language field are brought into existence. According to the statistics, more than 20 neologism dictionaries have been compiled, among which some put emphasis on the academic field and some are distinctive by their popularity. Oxford English Dictionary, Websters Third New International Dictionary and Barhart Dictionary of New English are the ones with the highest academic value. New words are numerous. Sometimes it seems as if a new word has about as much chance of developing into a permanent addition to our vocabulary. Only few of them will remain as serious candidates for the dictionary. Books especially about new words are abundant. However, only a few scholars have ventured to propose factors that make for the success of new words. One is Goran Kjellmer, whose article Potential Words in the journal Word for August 2000 also reviews previous proposals. The other is the executive secretary of American Dialect Society, Allan Metcalf who proposed the FUDGE scale. The two reached different conclusions. Along with books and periodicals, there is the Internet. In particular, it makes my extensive searches for examples of how words are actually used today possible. Here the author has searched thousands of pages indexed by Google.com countless times to find current uses of words under discussion. A jump of several decades has showed us more researches on the neologisms. Language reflects our life, and the research on the neologisms has never been stopped. By collecting new words or phrases occurring in languages, the previous researches have provided precious materials for the further exploration in this field. Therefore, a careful look at the research background of neologisms carries an essential academic significance. In china, the study of neologism began from 1980s. Most of the specific works and papers are mere introduction of theories from abroad lacking of much original study. To keep up with the latest English vocabulary is really difficult, thus a thorough and systematic analysis about English new words is of practical significance both in learning and teaching of English as a foreign language. Chapter 02: Factors for the Rise of English Neologisms It is not language change itself that has occupied the attention of historical linguists for the past decades, but the causes and the processes of change. Early researchers, such as Saussure (1922) or Bloomfield (1933), for instance, maintained that the causes of linguistic change cannot be established despite numerous attempts at feasible explanations (Wardhaugh,1990:187). The majority of the early researchers have maintained also that the actual processes of change cannot be observed that what one can observe and perhaps analyses are the consequences of change. The findings of later research, however, envisage the process of change as an initial fluctuation between the new and the old, with the completion of the process occurring when the new replaces the old (Fromkin et al.,1996:295). In other words, if the new form, be it phonological, morpho-syntactic, lexical or semantic, spreads the change is in progress, if it eventually replaces the old form, the change has become a fait ac compli it has gone to completion(Holmes,1992:212). In regard to the causes of change, although the reasons for an aspect of a language undergoing change at a particular point in time still remain unclear, a number of theories have been proposed, depending on the orientation of individual researchers. For instance, Mcmahon M.S (1994: 179-182) discussing causes of semantic change, delineates the following: Linguistic causes Historical causes (subdivided into ideas and scientific concepts) Social causes Psychological causes (subdivided into emotive factors and taboo) Foreign influence The need for a new name Quite a lot of reasons are responsible for the creating of English neologisms. Any new thing or new concept, which takes place in our society, may provide a foundation for the creating of the new words. In the following, four of the major reasons will be emphasized: 1) the rise of new concepts and new ideas in social culture; 2) new discoveries in science and technology; 3) the manufacture of new products in economy, and 4) the events in the field of politics. Accompanied by a series of neologisms, we can have a clearer understanding of the current English neologisms. 2.1. Sociolcultural Changes: 2.1.1. New Concepts and ideas in Social Culture. The improving living condition and the enhancing cultural standard have formed a solid basis on which a large number of new things find their occurrence. It is not necessary to demonstrate that with the development of social culture, new concepts and ideas are introduced into us constantly. Since there are many more concepts than there are existing words, there will always be new words created. Changes in social outlook and manners of behavior call for new terms such as beatnik, peacenik, and hippie. Even new culinary arrangements demand new labels and in English they have some forth in the form of cheeseburger, chiliburger, mushroomburger, etc. (Anderson, 1973) Brian Foster presents us a striking example of how fast English vocabulary changes. In the year 1914, a young girl named Monica Baldwin entered a convent, remaining secluded there until 1941. When she returned to the outer world, she found herself in a totally different world: the conditions of everyday life altered by technical developments and social changes were beyond recognition. Whats more puzzling to her was the language people speaking. During a railway journey, the term luggage in advance meant nothing to her. Reading the daily newspapers made her feel idiotic in the extreme, because words like jazz, Gin, Hollywood, Cool, noshing and Isolationism were completely incomprehensible to her. Not to mention how bewildered she was at hearing friends say, Its your funeral or believe it or not. (Brian Foster, 1981) Lets look at another example moonlighting. It was anything but new to the vocabulary, and it gained a brand new meaning in 1957 as the verb to moonlight and its related noun, moonlighting. Time magazine, beamed moonlighting at its readers in its issue of July 22nd, 1957. According to Time, it was in fact not just a new name, but a new trend and a new concern. MOON-LIGHTING, proclaimed the headline: A Problem Born of Prosperity. As a noun, moonlight goes back with the moon itself to the beginning of the English language and even earlier to the Germanic and Indo-European ancestors of English. Presumably ever since humans could speak, they have talked about the light of the moon. As a verb, to moonlight is more recent, but it still goes back to the nineteenth century. From the start it has meant doing something by the light of the moon, but at first this was something that could get one arrested. In the nineteenth century, moonlight was a slang term for the activity of burglars, who benefited from moonlight at their work. In the twentieth century, it was also used for herding cattle and hunting deer by moonlight. Whether it was the illegal work that in 1957 caused the transmutation of moonlight into a standard term for legal work, or whether this new meaning was independently derived from the original moonlight, nobody knows. And it doesnt matter much. Either way, moonlight meaning the light of the moon easily took on its second meaning of to work a second job, and Americans have been moonlighting ever since. This second meaning seems likely to stay in the vocabulary, as long as people continue to hold down second jobs. 2.1.2.Disguising Language, Misnomers While taboo words are words that have been banned by the speech community, misnomers are words that individuals have decided to coin in order to deceive the hearer by disguising unpleasant concepts. Examples: E. friendly fire instead of bombardment by own troops. 2.1.3.Prestige, Fashion Lexical change may be based on the prestige of another language or another variety of the same language, certain fashionable word-formation patterns or certain fashionable semasiological centers of expansion. The kernel of this force is mostly found outside of language. It is often the prestige of a culture, the superiority of a group or politics which cause speakers to adopt linguistic elements (words, morphemes, morphs, sounds) from the prestigious groups speech. Example: English, for instance, borrowed heavily from French during the ME. period because the upper social classes were made up of French people: garment, flower, rose, face, prince, hour, question, dance, fork, royal, loyal, fine, zero are all Gallicisms. Today, English is now the most prestigious language for many parts of the world. 2.1.4.Social, or Demographic, Reasons By social, or demographic, reasons we shall refer to the contact between different social groups. This contact may easily, and rather subconsciously, trigger off lexical change- the more intensive the social contact is, the more intensive the linguistic exchange. Example: In the history of the English language, the two prominent instances of exchanges between two social groups were the one with the Vikings in the 8th to 11th centuries and the one with the French in the 11th to 15th centuries. The force of direct contact between different speech communities must not be mixed up with the prestige force, where no direct contact with the other speech community is necessary. Thus, we can say that the early French loans (from Northern French) rather go back to the everyday contact with the English population and the French soldiers, not so early French loans (from Parisian French) go back to the prestige of the French aristocracy, the French loans in the official bilingual phase of Englands history may either go back to prestige or to the social contact or to both. Examples: The inherited ey is replaced by Scandinavian egg, the inherited nimen is replaced by Scandinavian taken except for theform benumb, throwen is supplemented by Scandinavian casten; early French loans are army, carpenter, catch. 2.1.5.Culture-Induced Salience of a Concept (Cultural Salience) Sometimes concepts are not salient to humans because of gerenal human nature, but because of the concepts cultural values. Their salience can change with the change of culture. Example: The increased importance of arts and fashion has affected the lexical treatment of the conceptual field of colors: from a vague differentiation between dark blue and light blue to a neat distinction between cobalt blue, royal blue, indigo etc. (such neat detailed differentiations often originate in expert slang and then penetrate the language of the general speech community). Conceptual fields which have gained salience through cultural importance may very well serve as designations in other conceptual field in the form of metaphors. Example: In the US, a lot of metaphors in general language have been taken from the field of baseball, e.g. to be off base to be completely wrong, to hit a home run to be highly successful and from the field of entrepreneurship. 2.1.6.Word-Play The category of word play includes humor, irony and puns. Although word-play often goes hand in hand with other factors (such as taboo, prestige or anthropological salience), it can also trigger lexical change on its own. Example: ModE. perfect lady prostitute, to take French leave to leave secretly (without paying), to cool look ( 2.2 New discoveries and Products In Science and Technology Suppose youre advancing the cause of science rather than pitching a product, and you have something new to report-a new element, a new compound, or a new species. How does it get a name? No new science is possible without neologisms, new words or new interpretations of old words to describe and explain reality in new ways. How could Aristotle have developed the logic of syllogisms or Newton thetheory of dynamics without new vocabularies and definitions? They were neologists, and everybody wanting to contribute new knowledge must be. For new knowledge there is no way around the creation of new terms and concepts. For new objects and new inventions, scientific discoveries, technical theories, etc, the new name is usually the work of one man or of a very few. To reject neologisms, often despicably, is to reject scientific development. No sign of scientific conservatism is so telling as the rejection of all but the established concepts of a school of thought. Neologisms are, however, relative to the terminological paradigm actually dominating a field of knowledge. It may be a radical renewal to introduce terms from a tradition believed to be outmoded. Nowadays the idea of the technical highway has been very familiar to people. Development in the science and technology has brought tremendous energy to the improvement of our civilization. And these achievements also find their reflections in language. Technical advancements in a society demand new designator terms, many of which can be found in linguistics such as hypercorrection, phoneme, allomorph, etc. The progress of science and technology gives occasion for the large majority of new words; for a new thing we must have a new name; hence, for instance, motor, argon, and appendicitis. It is interesting to see that the last word did not exist, or was at least too obscure to be recorded, when the Oxford Dictionary began to come out in 1888; but we cannot do without it now. Take the word software for example, that computer term was invented by John W. Tukey, a statistician at Princeton University. As long ago as 1958, he used the word in the American Mathematical Monthly. Today the software comprising the carefully planned interpretive routines, compilers, and other aspects of automotive programming are at least as important to the modern electronic calculator as its hardware of tubes, transistors, wires, tapes and the like. Tukey was already known for inventing another now- famous computer term. In 1946 he used the little word bit as the designation for a unit of information, a binary digit with value 0 or 1. That led a decade later to bytes (groups of bits, now always eight, a term invented by Werner Buchholz at IBM) and to todays kilo-, mega; and tera-bytes of computer storage and information. 2.3 The Manufacture of New Products in Economy Economic development is the mainstream of our era. The improvement of language, to a certain extent, benefits a lot from the new phenomenon that occurs in the economic field. In this competitive world, any innovation or fresh things taking place in economy will soon find their voice in the language. If theres anything a new product needs, its a brand name. To the extent that the product succeeds, the name will too. Its a sure thing, the one way to guarantee that a new term will be a success: spend mighty amounts of money on marketing persuade people to buy and keep on buying a product, and they will call it by the name you give it. When you want a product, a company would like you to think of its brand name. The Coca-Cola Company wants people to think of a Coke when they want a soft drink. But if the marketing is successful enough and the name Coke is embedded in peoples vocabulary, people will ask for a Coke and be satisfied if they get a Pepsi. In fact, in the southeastern United States, home of Coca-Cola, Coke is such a successful brand that many people there (and in the rest of the country) refer to any soft drink as a coke. Some brand names even joined the pack of the general vocabulary. Here are some of them: à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Aspirin: a name for acetylsalicylic acid, trademarked by the Bayer Company of Germany at the start of the twentieth century. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Elevator and escalator: both originally trademarks of the Otis Elevator Company. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Zipper: a name given to a separable fastener by the B.F. Goodrich Company many years after it was invented. The new name helped the zipper attain popularity in the 1930s. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Loafer: for a moccasin-like shoe. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Cellophane: for a transparent wrap made of cellulose. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Granola: a trademark registered in 1886 by W K. Kellogg, now used for a natural kind of breakfast cereal. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Ping-pong: for table tennis, a trademark registered by Parker Brothers in 1901. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Xerox: for photocopier. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Kleenex: for facial tissue. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Band-Aid: for adhesive bandage. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Tupperware: for storage container. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Scotch tape: for transparent adhesive tape. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Jazzercise: for exercise to jazz music. 2.4. The Events in the Field of Politics. The forming of English new words is sometimes considered as the result of the political changes. Language reflects the society, as it has always been. Politics is an essential part of the development of the world; therefore, it can easily find its relative neologisms in the language field. For instance, when Mr. Bill Clinton was elected as the president of the US., his name has been associated with many political words. His policy is Clintonian, he is carrying out the Clintionism, his economics policy is Clintonomics, and his supporters were called Clintonites, he ultimately wanted to realize his Clintonization. Another widespread usage of affixes is -gate, which came from the historical Watergate event. People took use of Irangate to disclose the involvement of some American government office workers in U.S. selling arms to Iran. Camillagate was used to mean the love affair of British Prince Charles and his lover Camilla Parker. Nannygate was pointed to the illegal hire of baby-sitter or the hire of illegal immigrants. Another striking example, On September 11, 2001, the peace of a sunny late-summer morning was shattered by the impact of four hijacked airplanes on the World Trade Center towers, the Pentagon, and a field in Pennsylvania. There were more direct casualties in these disasters than on any previous day in American history, and soon the entire country felt the impact of damaged or destroyed lives, businesses, and sense of security. Out of the ashes came patriotism, resolve, and unity. And out of the ashes came new words, too, to describe new situations never before imagined. The events stir memories of Pearl Harbor and Oklahoma City, and we refer to other memorable occasions by their locations Lexington and Concord, Gettysburg, Little Big Horn, and Wounded Knee but in this case the name of place wont work. Its not just because several places were involved, but also because the places are too famous. New York City and Washington, DC, have too many other connotations, so do the World Trade Center and the Pentagon. For lack of a suitable designation deriving from place, we have used the date as a reference point: September 11. That does have a well-known precedent. One other event in American history is referred to by its date: July 4 or the Fourth of July, the date in 1776 when the Declaration of Independence was proclaimed in Philadelphia. In addition to the spelled-out month and day, the numerals 9/11 or 9-11 have been used. Never before has such a historic event been so labeled, but because of the striking coincidence that 911 is the telephone number to call for help in an emergency, that numerical designation has been a success. Headline writers like the concision of this expression, just three numerals to take in all the events of that day. So far, the events of that day have resulted in just one new term: ground zero, for the place of impact, the center of destruction in New York City where the World Trade Towers once stood. That phrase has succeeded because it is not really new; its an old term for the location on the ground directly under a vast atomic explosion, corresponding to air zero, the location in the air above the ground where the bomb goes off. Ground zero had been gathering dust on the shelf in recent years because of a fortunate lack of atomic explosions. No one knows who first said ground zero in reference to the site where the World Trade Towers were attacked and collapsed, but the term immediately caught on because of its familiarity and emotional power. Chapter 03:Success of English Neologisms 3.1. How are Neologisms Found? The authority for a word in fact, the authority for a language rests with the users of the language. Thus, the process of adding new words to the dictio ­nary begins with a systematic examination of almost everything printed and said in English. As far as Among the New Words is concerned, this important task citation with source information (qtd. in Algeo 1991a: 3) is fulfilled by active members of the Words Committee, who contribute the words they regard as new in any material they read or listen to (Algeo 1991a: 3). The cited word must contain the name of the publication, the day, and the page number. Concerning oral citations, the source information must consist of the day the sentence was heard and where and when one came across it (Algeo 1991a: 3). The following list shows that usually American dictionaries are consulted (with the exceptions of two British dictionaries: the OED and Websters Third) to check the newness of each contribution (Algeo 1991a: 2): Random House Websters College Dictionary, 1991. Oxford English Dictionary, 2d ed., 1989. World Book Dictionary, 1989 Websters New World Dictionary, 3d College ed., 1988. Random House Dictionary, 2d ed. Unabridged, 1987. Websters Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary, 1983. Websters Third New International Dictionary, 1961. Only if the new word is assumed to be British, are additional British dictionaries referred to. To make sure that a neologism has not been lexicalized yet, the following dictionaries of neologisms are used: Third Barnhart Dictionary of New English. 1990. Chambers English Dictionary, 1988. Collins Concise Dictionary, 2d ed., 1988. Collins Dictionary, 2d ed., 1986. Longman Dictionary, 1984. Readers Digest Great Illustrated Dictionary, 1984. If a word entered one of these dictionaries, then it is usually not recorded in Among the New Words (Algeo 91a: 2). Since Among the New Words receives more citations than there is space to print, a selection has to be made. The criteria on what and when to enter a word is up to the lexicographer. As I said, lexicographers have different opinions (Algeo 1991b: 75) and therefore it is hard to give exact rules. However, two principles can be set up: the absolutely newness of a word and the reflection of the zeitgeist. 3.2. Reasons of Success of Neologisms 3.2.1 The frequency of occurrences The most important factor is that a word appears in as many different sources as possible. The more sources (newspapers, magazines, books etc.) a word appears in, the more obvious is the frequency and range of the term (Sheidlower 33). Besides, the more a word is cited the more popular it is; and consequently the more likely it is to be included in a dictionary. 3.2.2 Range among sources It is of interest to know the range of the new word because if a word is only common in a special field, it is not a candidate for a general dictionary but rather for a technical one. Therefore, a general dictionary excludes technical terms or terms well known in a certain field because they are not of general interest. However, there are exceptions: the term intellectual property  [1]  was limited to certain fields. Today, its use is widespread because new technologies are invented; thus the intellectual property has to be preserved (Sheidlower 33). 3.2.3 Durability The use of a term over a certain time gives information on its durability. Nevertheless, this criterion must not be overrated. It is true that a word that appears over a certain time span, but otherwise does not constitute sufficient evidence (qtd. in Barnhart 59) probably will not be included; however, a brandnew word with sufficient evidence (frequency of occurrences, range among sources, cruciality in a given field) is likely to enter a dictionary (Sheidlower 34). Sheidlower points out that the criterion should rather be the number and range of citations than the newness of the word (34

George Orwell, Book Jacket :: essays research papers

Eric Arthur Blair, known as George Orwell, was born in 1903 near Nepal in the Indian Village Moithari. "This is exactly what he tried to do: he tried to change himself from Eric Blair, old Etonian and English colonial policemen, into George Orwell, classless antiauthoritarian." (www.k-1.com) His two most famous work were Animal Farm(1943) and 1984(1946). Other books he has written have been Why I Write, Road to Wigan Pier, Down and Out(which was almost destroyed), Burmese Days, The Clergyman's Daughter, Homage to Catalonia, and Coming up for Air. In 1944 George Orwell and his then wife, Elieen O 'Shaughnessy, adopted a child. A year after hi wife died during an operation. In 1946, the same year he wrote 1984 and was also very ill, he married Sonia Bronwell. He says 1984 was so gloomy because of his illness. He died in January 1950 on the island of Jura off the Scottish Coast. Eric Arthur Blair, known as George Orwell, was born in 1903 near Nepal in the Indian Village Moithari. "This is exactly what he tried to do: he tried to change himself from Eric Blair, old Etonian and English colonial policemen, into George Orwell, classless antiauthoritarian." (www.k-1.com) His two most famous work were Animal Farm(1943) and 1984(1946). Other books he has written have been Why I Write, Road to Wigan Pier, Down and Out(which was almost destroyed), Burmese Days, The Clergyman's Daughter, Homage to Catalonia, and Coming up for Air. In 1944 George Orwell and his then wife, Elieen O 'Shaughnessy, adopted a child. A year after hi wife died during an operation. In 1946, the same year he wrote 1984 and was also very ill, he married Sonia Bronwell. He says 1984 was so gloomy because of his illness. He died in January 1950 on the island of Jura off the Scottish Coast. Eric Arthur Blair, known as George Orwell, was born in 1903 near Nepal in the Indian Village Moithari. "This is exactly what he tried to do: he tried to change himself from Eric Blair, old Etonian and English colonial policemen, into George Orwell, classless antiauthoritarian." (www.k-1.com) His two most famous work were Animal Farm(1943) and 1984(1946). Other books he has written have been Why I Write, Road to Wigan Pier, Down and Out(which was almost destroyed), Burmese Days, The Clergyman's Daughter, Homage to Catalonia, and Coming up for Air.

Inventory of the lost :: essays research papers

An inventory of the lost Suppose your father was working high in the World Trade Center on Sept. 11, 2001. You have been told by authorities in New York City what intuition told you as you watched the two towers collapse: Your father is dead. Yet that conclusion is a municipal bureaucracy's intuition, no more certifiable than your own. Your father's remains have not been found. He is presumed to have been killed largely because, first, he could not possibly have survived and, second, he has not been seen since. So your grief is compounded by a question as illogical as it is impossible for you to shake: What if, somehow, he escaped? What if, in some perhaps tragicomic way that screenwriters might never imagine, he managed to get out alive? This sort of bizarre ending doesn't often happen in real life, of course. Extremely rare is the victim of war, or of violence, or of some other tragedy, whose remains are never found and identified. If survivors of those victims get the terrible pain of loss, they invariably get proof that the victim is, irrefutably, deceased. Not so, though, for many survivors of the 2,792 people killed at the World Trade Center. Working with body parts retrieved from mountains of rubble, the office of New York City's medical examiner has confirmed the identities of 1,518 of those World Trade Center victims. But scientific tests have failed to link any of the body parts to the more than 1,200 other victims. The majority of those body parts exhumed from the debris - 12,000 of almost 20,000 fragments - are a tragic inventory of the lost. Efforts to match them to known DNA samples provided by the families of victims - strands of hair lifted from combs left at home, for example - have failed, often because the retrieved body fragments were so badly incinerated, crushed or deteriorated that their DNA was unknowable. Unknowable, that is, using today's DNA technologies. Faith in future technologies has led to a remarkably smart way of dealing with all those still unidentified body parts. They are being dried, individually vacuum sealed and packaged for a time when new means of identifying human tissue may tie them to specific victims. Under a protocol developed by city officials working with representatives of victims' families, the remains will be interred in a memorial at the site of the twin towers.